Iranian Journal of Materials Science and Engineering

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In this study, the hot deformation and dynamic recrystallization behavior of low carbon steel containing 21 ppm boron was investigated. After homogenizing the samples at 1250 ℃ for 1-hour, hot compression tests were conducted at temperatures ranging from 850 ℃ to 1150 ℃ and strain rates from 0.01 to 10 s⁻¹, resulting in strain-stress flow curves. Following corrections, calculations and modeling were performed based on Arrhenius equations. Among them, the hyperbolic sine relationship provided the most accurate estimate and was selected as the valid model for the applied strain range. According to this model, the deformation activation energy (Q), was determined to be 293.37 KJ/mol. Additionally, critical and peak stress and strain values were obtained for each temperature and strain rate, and power relationships were established to describe their variation with respect to the Zener-Hollomon parameter (Z). Recrystallization fractions were derived by comparing the hypothetical recovery curves with the material flow curves, and the results were successfully modeled using the Kolmogorov-Johnson-Mehl-Avrami (KJMA) equation. The Avrami exponent was measured at approximately 2, indicating that nucleation predominantly occurred at grain boundaries. Microstructural analysis revealed that at higher Z values, recrystallization occurred along with a fraction of elongated grains, while lower Z values resulted in a greater fraction of equiaxed dynamic recrystallization (DRX) grains. The average grain sizes after compression tests at 950 ℃, 1050 ℃, and 1150 ℃ were measured as 21.9 µm, 30.4 µm, and 33.6 µm respectively at a strain rate of 0.1 s⁻¹, and 17.7 µm, 28.7 µm, and 31.3 µm at 1 s⁻¹. The overall microstructure displayed a more uniform grain size distribution with increasing deformation temperature.

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In this study, we thoroughly examine β-Bi₂O₃ thin films as potential photocatalysts. We produced these films using an environmentally friendly Sol Gel method that is also cost-effective. Our research focuses on how different precursor concentrations, ranging from 0.1 M to 0.4 M, affect the photocatalytic performance of these films. We conducted a comprehensive set of tests to analyze various aspects of the films, including their structure, morphology, topography, optical properties, wettability, and photocatalytic capabilities. These tests provided us with a well-rounded understanding of the films' characteristics. To assess their photocatalytic efficiency, we used Methylene Blue (MB) as a contaminant and found that the films, particularly those with a 0.1 M concentration, achieved an impressive 99.9% degradation of MB within four hours. The 0.1 M film had a crystalline size of 39.7 nm, an indirect band gap of 2.99 eV, and a contact angle of 51.37°. Our findings suggest that β-Bi₂O₃ films, especially the 0.1 M variant, have promising potential for treating effluents from complex industrial dye processes. This research marks a significant step in utilizing sustainable materials to address pollution and environmental remediation challenges.

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The composite solid polymer electrolyte films were prepared by doping nano-sized Fe₂O₃ particles on PVB (Polyvinyl Butyral) complexed with NaNO₃ salt by solution casting technique. FTIR, XRD, and SEM methods characterized these electrolyte films. The Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction methods reveal the structural and complexation changes occurring in the electrolytes. The surface morphology of the electrolyte film was examined using the SEM (Scanning Electron Microscope) technique. The PVB+NaNO₃+Fe₂O₃(70:30:3%) electrolyte shows a moderate ionic conductivity of 2.51×10⁻⁵ S cm⁻¹ at ambient temperature (303 K). AC impedance spectroscopic analysis evaluates the ionic conductivity of the produced polymer electrolyte. Wagner's polarisation technique was applied to study the charge transport characteristics in the electrolyte films. The investigation revealed that ions constituted the majority of the transport carriers. An Open Circuit Voltage (OCV) of 2.0V and a Short Circuit Current (SCC) of 0.8 mA were found in the discharge characteristics data for the cell constructed with the polymer electrolyte sample.

 

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Cordierite ceramics are of interest for various applications due to their properties such as low thermal expansion coefficient and high thermal shock resistance. However, due to the narrow range of sintering temperature, attempts have been made to synthesize it using different additives. In this way, titania and tialite have been added in different amounts to the initial raw material mixture (talc, kaolin, and synthetic alumina). In this research, the initial powders (talc, kaolin, and synthetic alumina) were mixed in a planetary ball mill using different amounts of TiO₂ and tialite. The mixtures were sintered at 1250, 1300, and 1350 °C for 3 h. X-ray diffractometry and fluorescence, thermal analysis, microstructural observation, density, and cold compressive strength (CCS) were used to evaluate the sintered samples. Phase analysis revealed the presence of the cordierite phase along with small amounts of spinel. With increasing sintering temperature and titania addition, the amount of spinel decreased and the amount of cordierite phase increased. The real density increased with increasing titania additive content, but at higher titania contents, microcracks were observed in the SEM micrographs. By adding 15 wt% of tialite to the initial batch, the compressive strength has been increased by 88% compared to the pure cordierite sample.

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Natural-reinforced hybrid composites, called "eco-materials," are becoming increasingly important for protecting the environment and eliminating waste problems. In this study, hybrid biocomposites were produced by the colloidal mixing method using seashell (SS) as natural waste, two graphene derivatives (graphene oxide (GO) and reduced graphene oxide (RGO)) as filler material, and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) as the polymer matrix. The crystallization and mechanical properties of hybrid biocomposites were examined based on their thermal properties using TGA and DSC analysis. In comparison to PVC/GO and PVC/RGO composites with identical weight percentages of GO and RGO, the PVC/GO composite exhibited superior thermal stability and crystallinity, resulting in elevated hardness values for the same composite. These results were attributed to the better interaction of GO with PVC due to the higher number of oxygen-containing functional groups in GO than in RGO. However, the PVC/RGO/SS hybrid biocomposites exhibited superior properties than PVC/GO/SS hybrid biocomposites. The greatest crystallinity values were 39.40% for PVC/RGO/SS-20 compared to PVC/RGO at 20 wt% SS content and 29.21% for PVC/GO/SS-20 compared to PVC/GO. The PVC/RGO/SS-20 hybrid biocomposite showed the greatest gain in hardness value, up 18.47% compared to the PVC/RGO composite. No significant change was observed in the melting and weight loss temperatures as the SS content increased; however, the crystallinity and glass transition temperatures in hybrid biocomposites increased as the SS content increased. All analysis results demonstrated the achievement of SS-graphene-PVC interactions, suggesting that SS waste could enhance the thermal and mechanical properties of composite production.

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In this investigation, a formulation was developed as a solution and thin films by combining poly (3-hexylthiophene) (P3HT) and fullerene Indene-C60 multi-adducts (ICxA) with varying solvent ratios. The formulations were prepared under ambient conditions. Morphological parameters were assessed utilizing a transmission electron microscope, scanning electron microscope  and complemented by optical microscope pictures. UV-Visible absorbance and photoluminescence (PL) measurements were implemented to investigate the optical properties of active layers The values of the energy gaps of the prepared thin films and solutions increased as the solvent ratios of chlorobenzene to stander solvent increased, as a result of the isolation of P3HT chains from their neighbours. The Raman spectra are associated with high aggregation of composition and increased conformation when the intensity ratio (IC= C/IC-C) is small and the full width at high maximum (FWHM) is low. In ambient conditions, organic photovoltaic cells (OPVs) are produced with varying solvent ratios. The device with a 30% ratio exhibited the highest performance, with a power conversion efficiency (PCE) of approximately 1%, an open circuit voltage (VOC) of 0.571 V, a short circuit current density (JSC) of 7.47 mA.cm^-2, and a fill factor (FF) of 38.6%.

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In this research study, a composite coating of Ni-Co/SiC-CeO₂ was prepared on a copper substrate using the pulse electrodeposition technique. The effects of electrodeposition parameters, including current density, duty cycle, and frequency, on the properties of the prepared coating were investigated. The selected current density values were 0.1, 0.2, and 0.3 A/cm², the duty cycle options were 10, 20, and 30%, and the frequency values were 10, 100, and 1000 Hz. Increasing the current density enhanced the microhardness of the coating but reduced its corrosion resistance. This behavior can be attributed to the grain refinement occurring within the coating as the current density increases. On the other hand, an increase in duty cycle resulted in a decrease in microhardness, which can be attributed to a decrease in the concentration of nanoparticles within the coating. The lower corrosion resistance observed at higher duty cycles could be attributed to the decrease in off-time, causing the pulse electrodeposition conditions to approach a DC (direct current) state. Furthermore, higher frequencies were found to be associated with increased microhardness and improved corrosion resistance of the coatings. The coatings with the highest corrosion resistance exhibited a corrosion current density of 0.29 µA/cm² and a polarization resistance of 1063 Ω.cm² in a 3.5% NaCl solution. These coatings were prepared using a current density of 0.2 A/cm², a duty cycle of 10%, and a frequency of 1000 Hz.

 

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Fe₃O₄ nanoparticles (NPs) with a continuous and mesoporous silica (m-SiO₂) shell were synthesized using a one-step method, sourcing silica from rice husk ash (RHA). The rice husk was thermally treated to obtain ash, from which silica was extracted as sodium silicate and precipitated by pH reduction. This silica powder, combined with iron chloride salts, facilitated the synthesis of the core-shell NPs. Mint extract acted as a capping agent to prevent agglomeration, and CTAB (cetyltrimethylammonium bromide) was used to create the porous SiO₂ shell. X-ray diffraction (XRD), Field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) characterization investigated the structure, size, and shell formation. Coating integrity and suspension stability were assessed through Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and dynamic light scattering (DLS). DLS analysis showed a relatively narrow particle size distribution with an average hydrodynamic size of 72.6 nm. Small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) provided insights into the meso- and nanoscale structure, while BET and nitrogen adsorption-desorption isotherms confirmed the mesoporous nature of the silica shell. Magnetization measurements showed superparamagnetic behavior, with specific magnetization values of 57.9 emu/g for Fe₃O₄ and 27.5 emu/g for Fe₃O₄@m-SiO₂. These results confirm the successful synthesis of superparamagnetic magnetite NPs with a mesoporous silica coating from RHA.
 

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Dual nanocomposites based on metal sulfide nanomaterials with a narrow band gap are favorable candidates for future optoelectronic applications and ionizing ray sensors. In this study, novel silver-doped zinc sulfide/ cadmium sulfide (ZnS/CdS: Ag) nanocomposites were synthesized using the cost-effective solvothermal approach. For the first time, the radiation sensitivity of the newly developed nanocomposite was assessed using a ²⁴¹Am alpha source and ion beam-induced luminescence (IBIL) measurements. The ZnS/CdS: Ag nanocomposite demonstrated significant light emission in the blue-green spectrum when measured at room temperature. When exposed to alpha irradiation, the ZnS/CdS: Ag nanocomposite film displayed exceptional sensitivity compared to pure ZnS or CdS films. The FESEM images revealed a uniform distribution of semi-spherical and rod-shaped nanoparticles, with an average particle size measuring 180 nm. The results from XRD and EDX demonstrated distinct peaks corresponding to ZnS, CdS, and associated elements within the nanocomposite. The existence of several groups within the nanocomposite was confirmed through Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. Evaluations revealed that the optical quality of the ZnS/CdS: Ag nanocomposite showed enhancement in comparison to pure ZnS and CdS. The results suggest that the ZnS/CdS: Ag nanocomposite film holds great promise for applications in optoelectronic devices and detection technologies.
 

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ZrO₂ is commonly incorporated into ceramic glass substrates to enhance radiopacity, mechanical strength, and chemical durability. Experience has shown that the crystallization of tetragonal zirconia in glass will have a greater effect on the mechanical properties of ceramic glass. To achieve optimal properties in zirconia, stabilizing oxides are often added to enhance its structural and mechanical qualities. In this research, in order to stabilize the tetragonal phase of zirconia, MgO and CeO₂ were added to the glass ceramic composition of the Li₂O-SiO₂-ZrO₂ system and the desired dental substrate was synthesized through the sinter process. The behavior of sintering and crystallization of basic and optimized glass was investigated using HSM and DTA thermal analysis, respectively. The results showed that the optimal sinter temperature, heat press and heat treatment are equal to 730°C, 900°C and 825°C, respectively. Then, in order to determine the crystallization behavior of the prepared samples, X-ray diffraction and microstructure images were used. The results also showed that the presence of the main Li₂ZrSi₆O₁₅ phase crystallizes at a temperature of 825°C in the base sample and the sample containing ceria. Also, due to early formation of MgSiO₃ crystals, magnesia prevents sintering and formation of Li₂ZrSi₆O₁₅ phase and stability of tetragonal zirconia phase. In the sample containing ceria, during crystallization, ZrO₂ entered its crystal structure and led to the stability of the tetragonal zirconia phase at room temperature.

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Tellurite glasses have been researched for their radiation shielding properties as a potential alternative to lead and lead silica glass, which pose toxicity concerns. The effects of radiation on tellurite glasses are assessed using both physical irradiation and simulation with the Phy-X/PSD software. Glasses with the composition (70-x-y)TeO2–20ZnO–9Na2O–1Er2O3–(x)TiO2–(y)Al2O3, were fabricated using the melt-quench method. These glasses were then irradiated with gamma radiation at different doses. Characterization techniques, including XRD and UV-VIS spectroscopy, along with density measurements, were applied to the glasses both before and after irradiation. The XRD results confirmed that the glass samples were amorphous. UV-VIS spectroscopy showed that transmittance decreased as the radiation dose increased. The Phy-X/PSD simulation program was used to model the radiation properties of the glasses based on their dosage and composition. The simulation results indicated that the half-value layer (HVL) and mean free path (MFP) increased post-irradiation and then remained constant. These findings suggest that tellurite glasses, with their enhanced radiation shielding properties, could be a viable, safer alternative to lead-based glasses for various applications.

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Powder-based Physical Vapor Deposition (PPVD) was utilized to deposit doped TiO₂ thin layers, to modify electronic and optical properties. The modification was performed using different dopants (MnO₂, Ta₂O₅, Nb₂O₅) at different concentrations (0.05 and 0.1 mol%) respectively. The structural characterization by FESEM reveals that the size of the grain varied with respect to the dopants. The sample doped at lower concentration demonstrates a larger crystallite size than the sample doped at higher concentration. This trend is consistent with the measured grain size of the doped thin layer samples. The nonlinearity coefficient (α) and breakdown voltage at lower ranges are enhanced as the dopant concentration in the TiO₂ lattice increases due to the reduction of grain size. While, the optical properties of doped TiO₂ thin layers with respect to energy bandgap demonstrated enhancement trend with the addition of the dopant as revealed by UV-Vis’s reflectance analysis. The enhancement of electrical and optical properties is contributed by the formation of barrier layer surrounding the grains, which in return increases the conductivity of the doped TiO₂ thin layers sample. Conclusively, this study demonstrates the feasibility of the PPVD method in producing a dense thin layer structure for further optical and electrical based applications.

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The investigation of SUP9 steel under the hot-rolling conditions for applications to leaf spring suspension focused on its tensile and fatigue crack growth (FCG) properties. In order to investigate the tensile properties, tensile specimens were fabricated in the longitudinal-transverse (LT) direction. Furthermore, in order to evaluate fatigue crack growth (FCG) behaviour, compact tensile (CT) specimens with different crack plane orientations in both the LT and transverse-longitudinal (TL) directions were employed. Microstructural and fractographic analyses were conducted using optical microscope (OM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The hot-rolling process reduced the interlamellar spacings of Fe₃C, enhancing the tensile properties through strain hardening. A high yield-to-ultimate strength ratio (~0.623) indicates excellent plastic deformation capability and resistance to fatigue crack growth, making SUP9 steel suitable for the leaf spring suspension system. Furthermore, the exponential crack growth rate constant, m, was found to be 3.066 in the TL direction and 3.265 in the LT direction, indicating that cracks propagate more rapidly in the LT orientation. Additionally, non-metallic inclusions, such as spherical oxides and MnS precipitates in LT specimens, were observed to facilitate faster crack growth in the transverse direction.
 

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The effect of different Nd and PT compositions on the electrical and ferroelectric properties of (1-y)Bi_1-xNd_xFeO₃-yPbTiO₃ solid solutions, where x = 0.05, 0.10, 0.15, 0.20 and y = 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, and 0.4, was investigated to optimise material performance. Nd doping enhances the frequency-dependent dielectric properties of produced solid solutions. However, an anomaly in the dielectric loss tangent, which is consistent with the Debye relaxation process, is observed for compositions with x˂0.10 and y≥0.2 values in the frequency range of 1 KHz to 1 MHz. Dielectric anomalies were more noticeable around the transition temperature in temperature-dependent dielectric characteristics plots, suggesting stronger magnetoelectric interactions. The decrease in the dielectric constant for solid solution compositions with y ≥0.3 indicates the presence of MPB with BFO due to an increase in the tetragonal phase of the PbTiO3 compound. As Nd content increases, temperature-dependent dielectric permittivity predicts relaxor-type ferroelectric performance for y=0.4 composition of solid solutions. A ferroelectric investigation showed that saturation polarisation, remnant polarisation, and coercive field of all prepared solid solutions decrease with increased Nd doping. However, for y˃0.3 composition, a substantial rise in these parameters was observed, which is a result of electric order dominating over magnetic order in solid solutions. The study reveals that Nd doping reduces leakage current, making it a promising contender for future applications
 

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This study presents the manufacturing of Al 1050/Mg AZ31B bimetallic sheets using the cool roll bonding process, followed by an investigation of the effect of annealing temperature on mechanical properties and microstructural features. Annealing treatment was performed at 200, 300, and 400 degrees Celsius. Mechanical testing includes tension, micro-hardness, three-point bending, and fracture toughness. Scanning electron microscopy equipped with energy-dispersive X-Ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDX) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) were used to investigate the microstructure in the infiltration zone. Mechanical testing shows that increasing the annealing temperature decreases the tensile strength of the two-layer specimens. Micro-hardness, XRD, and SEM-EDX investigations confirm the presence of intermetallic particles in the penetration zone. The Micro- hardness test showed that with the increase of the annealing temperature, the hardness in the penetration zone of Al 1050/Mg AZ31B increases. This increase in micro-hardness result confirms the presence of harder intermetallic phases with increasing annealing temperature in the penetration zone.
 

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Nanomaterials have significantly transformed multiple scientific and technological fields due to their exceptional properties, which result from their quantum confinement effects and high surface-to-volume ratios. Among these materials, zinc oxide (ZnO) and titanium dioxide (TiO₂) nanoparticles have attracted considerable interest because of their diverse applications.
In this study, TiO₂-ZnO nanocomposites were synthesized using varying calcination times of 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, and 3 hours. Characterization of fabricated samples through X-ray diffraction (XRD)‌ spectroscopy, Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM), and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDXS) confirmed the successful fabrication of the nanocomposites. In this regard, XRD analysis revealed anatase TiO₂ and hexagonal wurtzite ZnO phases. Raman spectroscopy also supported these findings, identifying characteristic peaks of both TiO₂ and ZnO.
The calcination time had a minimal effect on the crystal structures and also morphology of the nanocomposites, which gave rise to its negligible impact on optical properties and biological activities of the samples. Optical properties assessed by means of UV-visible and photoluminescence (PL) spectroscopy showed consistent band gap absorption and emission profiles across all samples, among which the nanocomposite calcined for 1 hour exhibited the best optical properties.

The sample prepared at 1 hour not only showed the most favorable optical properties, but also demonstrated significant antibacterial, antifungal, and cytotoxic activities, which make it suitable for various applications. In this regard, a reduction of more than 99.9% occurred in the number of Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus bacteria and also Candida albicans fungus by using TiO₂-ZnO nanocomposite. Besides, addition of 500 µg/ml of nanocomposite decreased the cell viability to 34.47%, which signifies its high cytotoxicity activity.

 

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Hybrid asymmetric supercapacitors using distinct cathode/anode materials offer enhanced energy density by expanding operational potential windows compared to symmetric configurations. In this work rGO/α-Fe₂O₃ and rGO/TiO₂ nanocomposites were synthesized via hydrothermal method for hybrid asymmetric supercapacitors applications. Field emission scanning electron microscope (FESEM) revealed uniform distribution of spherical α-Fe₂O₃ and TiO₂ nanoparticles on rGO sheets. The X-ray diffractometry (XRD) analysis confirmed the presence of the hematite and anatase in the rGO/α-Fe₂O₃ and rGO/TiO₂ nanocomposites, respectively. Additionally, in the XRD spectra of both nanocomposites, a broad peak corresponding to the (002) crystalline planes of rGO was observed. Electrochemical testing showed specific capacities of 130 F/g (rGO/α-Fe₂O₃) and 253 F/g (rGO/TiO₂) at 5 mV/s in 1M KOH. The assembled hybrid asymmetric supercapacitors (rGO/α-Fe₂O₃//rGO/TiO₂) achieved a 1.6 V operational potential window. Power density and energy density of 1066 W kg^-1 and 9.7 Wh kg^-1 were achieved at a current density of 1 A/g, respectively.
 

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This study investigates the microstructural evolution and variations in the mechanical properties of pre-cold worked Nimonic 80A superalloy, subjected to two levels of deformation (25% and 50%) and welded via Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) and Pulsed Current Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (PCGTAW) techniques using ER309L filler wire. The objective is to evaluate the effect of the initial microstructure on the welding behavior of Nimonic 80A and compare the weldments produced using GTAW and PCGTAW. Microstructural characterization was conducted using optical microscopy (OM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and X-ray diffraction (XRD). XRD analysis demonstrated that the welding pulsed current mode, compared to the continuous current mode and at equal heat input, led to a refined microstructure, suggesting improved welded mechanical properties of the weld. It also showed a potential reduction in grain refinement with a higher level of cold work. Tensile testing demonstrated that fractures consistently occurred within the weld zone (WZ), with the PCGTAW sample achieving the highest tensile strength (766 MPa). Microhardness analysis indicated a notable reduction in hardness within the heat-affected zone (HAZ) and WZ, particularly in the 50% pre-cold worked sample. However, PCGTAW retained higher hardness due to its refined microstructure. The weld metal primarily consisted of an austenitic microstructure characterized by dendrites and interdendritic precipitates. Microstructural analysis revealed that welding induced significant changes in the weldment, with the PCGTAW sample exhibiting a more uniform microstructure and smoother transitions at the weld interface. Fractography confirmed ductile fracture in all specimens, with smoother and more uniformly distributed dimples in the PCGTAW sample. These findings highlight the advantages of pulsed current welding in optimizing the mechanical performance of Nimonic 80A welds and suggest its potential application in industries requiring superior weld quality.

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This research explored the impact of the nickel-to-manganese ratio and the influence of the matrix phase on the properties of W-Ni-Mn tungsten heavy alloys (WHAs), aiming to determine the optimal composition for achieving desirable alloy properties.  For this purpose, tungsten, nickel, and manganese powders with specified weight percentages underwent two rounds of wet milling.  Powder mixtures were obtained with weight ratios of 90W-6Ni-4Mn, 90W-8Ni-2Mn, and 88W-10Ni-2Mn. These mixtures were then compressed through the cold pressing method at a pressure of 250 MPa. Subsequent reduction and sintering processes were carried out in a tube furnace at temperatures of 1150 and 1400 °C, respectively. Microstructural characterization was conducted using both optical and electron microscopy. The results showed that the change in chemical composition is not significantly effective on the sintering density of the samples and also the highest sintering density, reaching 90.11%, was achieved with the 88W-10Ni-2Mn sample. Furthermore, the results demonstrated that carburization of W-Ni-Mn WHAs during the sintering process led to an increase in the micro-hardness of the samples. The highest hardness, measuring 381 Hv, was observed in the 90W-6Ni-4Mn alloy, where carburization occurred. XRD results revealed that an increase in the nickel-to-manganese ratio led to a reduction in the peaks of manganese carbide and tungsten carbide. Consequently, this decrease in carbide peaks resulted in a reduction in hardness, reaching 352 Hv in the case of the 88W-10Ni-2Mn sample. Additionally, the alloys 90W-6Ni-4Mn and 88W-10Ni-2Mn both exhibited the lowest continuity, a value of 0.5. Fracture surface SEM images illustrated that the 90W-6Ni-4Mn alloy, characterized by the lowest nickel-to-manganese ratio (1.5), exhibited the highest trans-granular fracture mode involving cleavage and matrix tearing, which is considered desirable. Furthermore, an increase in the matrix phase content resulted in a shift of the preferred crack path, originating from the matrix phase.